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A patient being examined with a thoracic in 1940, which displayed continuous moving images. This image was used to argue that during the X-ray procedure would be negligible. The many applications of X-rays immediately generated enormous interest. Workshops began making specialized versions of Crookes tubes for generating X-rays and these first-generation or Crookes X-ray tubes were used until about 1920. Crookes tubes were unreliable. They had to contain a small quantity of gas (invariably air) as a current will not flow in such a tube if they are fully evacuated.

However, as time passed, the X-rays caused the glass to absorb the gas, causing the tube to generate 'harder' X-rays until it soon stopped operating. Larger and more frequently used tubes were provided with devices for restoring the air, known as 'softeners'. These often took the form of a small side tube which contained a small piece of, a that traps relatively large quantities of air within its structure. A small electrical heater heated the mica, causing it to release a small amount of air, thus restoring the tube's efficiency. However, the mica had a limited life, and the restoration process was difficult to control.

In 1904, invented the, the first kind of. This used a that caused an to flow in a.

This idea was quickly applied to X-ray tubes, and hence heated-cathode X-ray tubes, called 'Coolidge tubes', completely replaced the troublesome cold cathode tubes by about 1920. In about 1906, the physicist discovered that X-rays could be scattered by gases, and that each element had a characteristic. He won the 1917 for this discovery. In 1912, Paul Knipping, and Walter Friedrich first observed the of X-rays by crystals. This discovery, along with the early work of, and, gave birth to the field of.

The was invented during the following year. It made possible the continuous emissions of X-rays. X-ray tubes similar to this are still in use in 2012. Chandra's image of the galaxy cluster Abell 2125 reveals a complex of several massive multimillion-degree-Celsius gas clouds in the process of merging. The use of X-rays for medical purposes (which developed into the field of ) was pioneered by Major in. Then in 1908, he had to have his left arm amputated because of the spread of on his arm.

In 1914 developed radiological cars to support soldiers injured in. The cars would allow for rapid X-ray imaging of wounded soldiers so battlefield surgeons could quickly and more accurately operate.

From the 1920s through to the 1950s, x-ray machines were developed to assist in the fitting of shoes and were sold to commercial shoe stores. Concerns regarding the impact of frequent or poorly controlled use were expressed in the 1950s, leading to the practise's eventual end that decade. The was developed during the 1950s. The, launched on July 23, 1999, has been allowing the exploration of the very violent processes in the universe which produce X-rays. Unlike visible light, which gives a relatively stable view of the universe, the X-ray universe is unstable. It features stars being torn apart by, galactic collisions, and novae, and that build up layers of plasma that then explode into space.

An device was proposed as part of the 's in the 1980s, but the only test of the device (a sort of laser 'blaster' or, powered by a thermonuclear explosion) gave inconclusive results. For technical and political reasons, the overall project (including the X-ray laser) was de-funded (though was later revived by the second as using different technologies). Phase-contrast x-ray image of spider refers to a variety of techniques that use phase information of a coherent x-ray beam to image soft tissues. It has become an important method for visualizing cellular and histological structures in a wide range of biological and medical studies.

There are several technologies being used for x-ray phase-contrast imaging, all utilizing different principles to convert phase variations in the x-rays emerging from an object into intensity variations. These include propagation-based phase contrast, interferometry, refraction-enhanced imaging, and x-ray interferometry.

These methods provide higher contrast compared to normal absorption-contrast x-ray imaging, making it possible to see smaller details. A disadvantage is that these methods require more sophisticated equipment, such as or x-ray sources, and high resolution x-ray detectors. Energy ranges Soft and hard X-rays X-rays with high (above 5–10 keV, below 0.2–0.1 nm wavelength) are called hard X-rays, while those with lower energy (and longer wavelength) are called soft X-rays. Due to their penetrating ability, hard X-rays are widely used to image the inside of objects, e.g., in. The term X-ray is used to refer to a image produced using this method, in addition to the method itself. Since the wavelengths of hard X-rays are similar to the size of atoms, they are also useful for determining crystal structures. By contrast, soft X-rays are easily absorbed in air; the of 600 eV (2 nm) X-rays in water is less than 1 micrometer.

Gamma rays There is no consensus for a definition distinguishing between X-rays and gamma rays. One common practice is to distinguish between the two types of radiation based on their source: X-rays are emitted by, while gamma rays are emitted by the. This definition has several problems: other processes also can generate these high-energy, or sometimes the method of generation is not known. One common alternative is to distinguish X- and gamma radiation on the basis of wavelength (or, equivalently, frequency or photon energy), with radiation shorter than some arbitrary wavelength, such as 10 −11 m (0.1 ), defined as gamma radiation. This criterion assigns a photon to an unambiguous category, but is only possible if wavelength is known. (Some measurement techniques do not distinguish between detected wavelengths.) However, these two definitions often coincide since the electromagnetic radiation emitted by generally has a longer wavelength and lower photon energy than the radiation emitted.

Occasionally, one term or the other is used in specific contexts due to historical precedent, based on measurement (detection) technique, or based on their intended use rather than their wavelength or source. Thus, gamma-rays generated for medical and industrial uses, for example, in the ranges of 6–20, can in this context also be referred to as X-rays.

Properties. Attenuation length of X-rays in water showing the oxygen at 540 eV, the energy −3 dependence of, as well as a leveling off at higher photon energies due to. The attenuation length is about four orders of magnitude longer for hard X-rays (right half) compared to soft X-rays (left half).

Hard X-rays can traverse relatively thick objects without being much. For this reason, X-rays are widely used to the inside of visually opaque objects. The most often seen applications are in medical and scanners, but similar techniques are also important in industry (e.g.

And ) and research (e.g. The varies with several over the X-ray spectrum. This allows the photon energy to be adjusted for the application so as to give sufficient through the object and at the same time provide good in the image. X-rays have much shorter wavelengths than visible light, which makes it possible to probe structures much smaller than can be seen using a normal. This property is used in to acquire high resolution images, and also in to determine the positions of in.

Interaction with matter X-rays interact with matter in three main ways, through,. The strength of these interactions depends on the energy of the X-rays and the elemental composition of the material, but not much on chemical properties, since the X-ray photon energy is much higher than chemical binding energies. Photoabsorption or photoelectric absorption is the dominant interaction mechanism in the soft X-ray regime and for the lower hard X-ray energies.

At higher energies, Compton scattering dominates. Photoelectric absorption The probability of a photoelectric absorption per unit mass is approximately proportional to Z 3/ E 3, where Z is the atomic number and E is the energy of the incident photon. This rule is not valid close to inner shell electron binding energies where there are abrupt changes in interaction probability, so called. However, the general trend of high and thus short for low photon energies and high atomic numbers is very strong. For soft tissue, photoabsorption dominates up to about 26 keV photon energy where Compton scattering takes over. For higher atomic number substances this limit is higher.

The high amount of calcium ( Z=20) in bones together with their high density is what makes them show up so clearly on medical radiographs. A photoabsorbed photon transfers all its energy to the electron with which it interacts, thus ionizing the atom to which the electron was bound and producing a photoelectron that is likely to ionize more atoms in its path. An outer electron will fill the vacant electron position and produce either a characteristic x-ray or an.

These effects can be used for elemental detection through. Compton scattering Compton scattering is the predominant interaction between X-rays and soft tissue in medical imaging. Compton scattering is an of the X-ray photon by an outer shell electron. Part of the energy of the photon is transferred to the scattering electron, thereby ionizing the atom and increasing the wavelength of the X-ray. The scattered photon can go in any direction, but a direction similar to the original direction is more likely, especially for high-energy X-rays. The probability for different scattering angles are described by the.

The transferred energy can be directly obtained from the scattering angle from the. Rayleigh scattering Rayleigh scattering is the dominant mechanism in the X-ray regime. Inelastic forward scattering gives rise to the refractive index, which for X-rays is only slightly below 1. Production Whenever charged particles (electrons or ions) of sufficient energy hit a material, X-rays are produced.

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Production by electrons Characteristic X-ray emission lines for some common anode materials. Anode material Atomic number Photon energy keV Wavelength nm K β1 K α1 K β1 74 59.3 67.2 0.0209 0.0184 42 17.5 19.6 0.0709 0.0632 29 8.05 8.91 0.154 0.139 47 22.2 24.9 0.0559 0.0497 31 9.25 10.26 0.134 0.121 49 24.2 27.3 0.0512 0.455. Spectrum of the X-rays emitted by an X-ray tube with a target, operated at 60. The smooth, continuous curve is due to, and the spikes are for rhodium atoms. X-rays can be generated by an, a that uses a high voltage to accelerate the released by a to a high velocity. The high velocity electrons collide with a metal target, the, creating the X-rays.

In medical X-ray tubes the target is usually or a more crack-resistant alloy of (5%) and tungsten (95%), but sometimes for more specialized applications, such as when softer X-rays are needed as in mammography. In crystallography, a target is most common, with often being used when fluorescence from content in the sample might otherwise present a problem. The maximum energy of the produced X-ray is limited by the energy of the incident electron, which is equal to the voltage on the tube times the electron charge, so an 80 kV tube cannot create X-rays with an energy greater than 80 keV. When the electrons hit the target, X-rays are created by two different atomic processes:. emission : If the electron has enough energy it can knock an orbital electron out of the inner of a metal atom, and as a result electrons from higher energy levels then fill up the vacancy and X-ray photons are emitted. This process produces an of X-rays at a few discrete frequencies, sometimes referred to as the spectral lines.

The spectral lines generated depend on the target (anode) element used and thus are called characteristic lines. Usually these are transitions from upper shells into K shell (called ), into L shell (called L lines) and so on.: This is radiation given off by the electrons as they are scattered by the strong electric field near the high- Z ( number) nuclei. These X-rays have a. The intensity of the X-rays increases linearly with decreasing frequency, from zero at the energy of the incident electrons, the voltage on the. So the resulting output of a tube consists of a continuous bremsstrahlung spectrum falling off to zero at the tube voltage, plus several spikes at the characteristic lines.

The voltages used in diagnostic X-ray tubes range from roughly 20 kV to 150 kV and thus the highest energies of the X-ray photons range from roughly 20 keV to 150 keV. Both of these X-ray production processes are inefficient, with only about one percent of the electrical energy used by the tube converted into X-rays, and thus most of the consumed by the tube is released as waste heat. When producing a usable flux of X-rays, the X-ray tube must be designed to dissipate the excess heat.

A specialized source of X-rays which is becoming widely used in research is, which is generated. Its unique features are X-ray outputs many orders of magnitude greater than those of X-ray tubes, wide X-ray spectra, excellent,.

Short nanosecond bursts of X-rays peaking at 15-keV in energy may be reliably produced by peeling pressure-sensitive adhesive tape from its backing in a moderate vacuum. This is likely to be the result of recombination of electrical charges produced. The intensity of X-ray is sufficient for it to be used as a source for X-ray imaging. Production by fast positive ions X-rays can also be produced by fast protons or other positive ions. The proton-induced X-ray emission or is widely used as an analytical procedure. For high energies, the production is proportional to Z 1 2Z 2 −4, where Z 1 refers to the of the ion, Z 2 to that of the target atom.

An overview of these cross sections is given in the same reference. Production in lightning and laboratory discharges X-rays are also produced in lightning accompanying. The underlying mechanism is the acceleration of electrons in lightning related electric fields and the subsequent production of photons through. This produces photons with energies of some few and several tens of MeV. In laboratory discharges with a gap size of approximately 1 meter length and a peak voltage of 1 MV, X-rays with a characteristic energy of 160 keV are observed. A possible explanation is the encounter of two and the production of high-energy; however, microscopic simulations have shown that the duration of electric field enhancement between two streamers is too short to produce a significantly number of run-away electrons.

Recently, it has been proposed that air perturbations in the vicinity of streamers can facilitate the production of run-away electrons and hence of X-rays from discharges. Detectors. Plain radiograph of the right knee is the practice of producing two-dimensional images using x-ray radiation. Bones contain much, which due to its relatively high absorbs x-rays efficiently. This reduces the amount of X-rays reaching the detector in the shadow of the bones, making them clearly visible on the radiograph. The lungs and trapped gas also show up clearly because of lower absorption compared to tissue, while differences between tissue types are harder to see.

Projectional radiographs are useful in the detection of of the as well as for detecting some disease processes in. Some notable examples are the very common, which can be used to identify lung diseases such as, or, and the, which can detect, free air (from visceral perforations) and free fluid (in ). X-rays may also be used to detect pathology such as (which are rarely ) or which are often (but not always) visible. Traditional plain X-rays are less useful in the imaging of soft tissues such as the. One area where projectional radiographs are used extensively is in evaluating how an orthopedic, such as a knee, hip or shoulder replacement, is situated in the body with respect to the surrounding bone. This can be assessed in two dimensions from plain radiographs, or it can be assessed in three dimensions if a technique called '2D to 3D registration' is used. This technique purportedly negates projection errors associated with evaluating implant position from plain radiographs.

Is commonly used in the diagnoses of common oral problems, such as. In medical diagnostic applications, the low energy (soft) X-rays are unwanted, since they are totally absorbed by the body, increasing the radiation dose without contributing to the image. Hence, a thin metal sheet, often of, called an, is usually placed over the window of the X-ray tube, absorbing the low energy part in the spectrum. This is called hardening the beam since it shifts the center of the spectrum towards higher energy (or harder) x-rays. To generate an image of the, including the arteries and veins an initial image is taken of the anatomical region of interest.

A second image is then taken of the same region after an iodinated has been injected into the blood vessels within this area. These two images are then digitally subtracted, leaving an image of only the iodinated contrast outlining the blood vessels.

The or then compares the image obtained to normal anatomical images to determine whether there is any damage or blockage of the vessel. Computed tomography.

Head slice -– a modern application of (CT scanning) is a medical imaging modality where or slices of specific areas of the body are obtained from a large series of two-dimensional X-ray images taken in different directions. These cross-sectional images can be combined into a image of the inside of the body and used for diagnostic and therapeutic purposes in various medical disciplines. Fluoroscopy is an imaging technique commonly used by or to obtain real-time moving images of the internal structures of a patient through the use of a fluoroscope. In its simplest form, a fluoroscope consists of an X-ray source and a fluorescent screen, between which a patient is placed.

However, modern fluoroscopes couple the screen to an and allowing the images to be recorded and played on a monitor. This method may use a contrast material.

Examples include cardiac catheterization (to examine for ) and barium swallow (to examine for and swallowing disorders). Radiotherapy The use of X-rays as a treatment is known as and is largely used for the management (including ) of; it requires higher radiation doses than those received for imaging alone. X-rays beams are used for treating skin cancers using lower energy x-ray beams while higher energy beams are used for treating cancers within the body such as brain, lung, prostate, and breast. Adverse effects. Deformity of hand due to an X-ray burn. These burns are accidents. X-rays were not shielded when they were first discovered and used, and people received radiation burns.

Diagnostic X-rays (primarily from CT scans due to the large dose used) increase the risk of developmental problems and in those exposed. X-rays are classified as a by both the World Health Organization's and the U.S. It is estimated that 0.4% of current cancers in the United States are due to (CT scans) performed in the past and that this may increase to as high as 1.5-2% with 2007 rates of CT usage. Experimental and epidemiological data currently do not support the proposition that there is a below which there is no increased risk of cancer. However, this is under increasing doubt. It is estimated that the additional radiation from diagnostic X-rays will increase the average person's cumulative risk of getting cancer by age 75 by 0.6–3.0%. The amount of absorbed radiation depends upon the type of X-ray test and the body part involved.

CT and fluoroscopy entail higher doses of radiation than do plain X-rays. To place the increased risk in perspective, a plain chest X-ray will expose a person to the same amount from that people are exposed to (depending upon location) every day over 10 days, while exposure from a dental X-ray is approximately equivalent to 1 day of environmental background radiation.

Each such X-ray would add less than 1 per 1,000,000 to the lifetime cancer risk. An abdominal or chest CT would be the equivalent to 2–3 years of background radiation to the whole body, or 4–5 years to the abdomen or chest, increasing the lifetime cancer risk between 1 per 1,000 to 1 per 10,000. This is compared to the roughly 40% chance of a US citizen developing cancer during their lifetime. For instance, the effective dose to the torso from a CT scan of the chest is about 5 mSv, and the absorbed dose is about 14 mGy. A head CT scan (1.5mSv, 64mGy) that is performed once with and once without contrast agent, would be equivalent to 40 years of background radiation to the head. Accurate estimation of effective doses due to CT is difficult with the estimation uncertainty range of about ±19% to ±32% for adult head scans depending upon the method used.

The risk of radiation is greater to a fetus, so in pregnant patients, the benefits of the investigation (X-ray) should be balanced with the potential hazards to the fetus. In the US, there are an estimated 62 million CT scans performed annually, including more than 4 million on children. Avoiding unnecessary X-rays (especially CT scans) reduces radiation dose and any associated cancer risk. Medical X-rays are a significant source of man-made radiation exposure. In 1987, they accounted for 58% of exposure from man-made sources in the. Since man-made sources accounted for only 18% of the total radiation exposure, most of which came from natural sources (82%), medical X-rays only accounted for 10% of total American radiation exposure; medical procedures as a whole (including ) accounted for 14% of total radiation exposure.

By 2006, however, medical procedures in the United States were contributing much more ionizing radiation than was the case in the early 1980s. In 2006, medical exposure constituted nearly half of the total radiation exposure of the U.S. Population from all sources. The increase is traceable to the growth in the use of medical imaging procedures, in particular (CT), and to the growth in the use of nuclear medicine. Dosage due to dental X-rays varies significantly depending on the procedure and the technology (film or digital). Depending on the procedure and the technology, a single dental X-ray of a human results in an exposure of 0.5 to 4 mrem. A full mouth series of X-rays may result in an exposure of up to 6 (digital) to 18 (film) mrem, for a yearly average of up to 40 mrem.

Financial incentives have been shown to have a significant impact on X-ray use with doctors who are paid a separate fee for each X-ray providing more X-rays. Other uses Other notable uses of X-rays include.

Each dot, called a reflection, in this diffraction pattern forms from the constructive interference of scattered X-rays passing through a crystal. The data can be used to determine the crystalline structure. In which the pattern produced by the of X-rays through the closely spaced lattice of atoms in a crystal is recorded and then analysed to reveal the nature of that lattice.

In the early 1990s, experiments were done in which layers a few atoms thick of two different materials were deposited in a Thue-Morse sequence. The resulting object was found to yield X-ray diffraction patterns. A related technique, was used by to discover the structure of., which is an observational branch of, which deals with the study of X-ray emission from celestial objects. Analysis, which uses in the soft X-ray band to produce images of very small objects., a technique in which X-rays are generated within a specimen and detected. The outgoing energy of the X-ray can be used to identify the composition of the sample. Uses X-rays for inspection of industrial parts, particularly. Using X-ray for inspection and quality control: the differences in the structures of the die and bond wires reveal the left chip to be counterfeit.

Authentication and quality control, X-ray is used for authentication and quality control of packaged items. (computed tomography) is a process which uses X-ray equipment to produce three-dimensional representations of components both externally and internally. This is accomplished through computer processing of projection images of the scanned object in many directions. Paintings are often X-rayed to reveal and, alterations in the course of painting or by later restorers. Many such as show well in radiographs. X-ray spectromicroscopy has been used to analyse the reactions of pigments in paintings.

For example, in analysing colour degradation in the paintings of luggage scanners use X-rays for inspecting the interior of luggage for security threats before loading on aircraft. Truck scanners use X-rays for inspecting the interior of trucks.